Changes

By the late 2nd millennium b.c. cording was known; the technique was later used in the selvages of carpets<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures|iii. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures]]" and "[[Persian Carpets/Flat-Woven Carpets: Techniques and Structures|v. Flat-woven carpets. Techniques and structures]]"]</ref>.<br>

By the late 2nd millennium b.c. cording was known; the technique was later used in the selvages of carpets<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures|iii. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures]]" and "[[Persian Carpets/Flat-Woven Carpets: Techniques and Structures|v. Flat-woven carpets. Techniques and structures]]"]</ref>.<br>

In the tombs at Marlik<ref>Mārlīk</ref> on the southwest Caspian coast, which date from this period or perhaps the beginning of the 1st-millennium b.c.<ref>Muscarella, pp. 416-17</ref>, were found fragments of unidentified fabric, including cords and woven bands<ref>Negahban, 1964, fig. 88 and p. 50</ref>. In addition, adhering to the surface of a bronze beaker from tomb 39 were traces of a fabric in which it may have been wrapped before burial<ref>Negahban, 1983, p. 77, no. 50</ref>. Tomb C-I at the approximately contemporary site of Ghalekuti<ref>Qaḷʿa-ye Kotī</ref> in Deylamān contained a mirror with remains of hemp or flax cloth adhering to it, as well as fragmentary strings of hemp or flax that appear to have provided suspension for jewelry<ref>Egami et al., 1965, p. 31 and pl. LXXV/88-90</ref>.<br>

In the tombs at Marlik<ref>Mārlīk</ref> on the southwest Caspian coast, which date from this period or perhaps the beginning of the 1st-millennium b.c.<ref>Muscarella, pp. 416-17</ref>, were found fragments of unidentified fabric, including cords and woven bands<ref>Negahban, 1964, fig. 88 and p. 50</ref>. In addition, adhering to the surface of a bronze beaker from tomb 39 were traces of a fabric in which it may have been wrapped before burial<ref>Negahban, 1983, p. 77, no. 50</ref>. Tomb C-I at the approximately contemporary site of Ghalekuti<ref>Qaḷʿa-ye Kotī</ref> in Deylamān contained a mirror with remains of hemp or flax cloth adhering to it, as well as fragmentary strings of hemp or flax that appear to have provided suspension for jewelry<ref>Egami et al., 1965, p. 31 and pl. LXXV/88-90</ref>.<br>

[[File:File:Pazyryk Carpet-Hermitage Museum-WikiRug.jpg|250px|thumb|right| Although Xenophon mentions that the Persian kings made use of “Median carpets” of a yielding softness, no example is preserved from Achaemenid Persia itself[29]. The earliest well-preserved pile carpet that has been excavated was found in kurgan 5 at the site of Pazyryk in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia; it has often erroneously been identified as “Persian,” even by the excavator. [https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital-collection/25.+Archaeological+Artifacts/879870/ , Pazyryk Carpet, 5th-4th century BC, Hermitage Museum]]]

[[File:Pazyryk Carpet-Hermitage Museum-WikiRug.jpg|250px|thumb|right| Although Xenophon mentions that the Persian kings made use of “Median carpets” of a yielding softness, no example is preserved from Achaemenid Persia itself[29]. The earliest well-preserved pile carpet that has been excavated was found in kurgan 5 at the site of Pazyryk in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia; it has often erroneously been identified as “Persian,” even by the excavator. [https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/digital-collection/25.+Archaeological+Artifacts/879870/ , Pazyryk Carpet, 5th-4th century BC, Hermitage Museum]]]

Hasanlu<ref>Ḥasanlū</ref>, near Lake Urmia in Azerbaijan, was destroyed in an attack at the end of the 9th-century b.c.<ref>level IVB</ref>, and a relatively large sample of textiles survived the resulting fire<ref>Dyson and Muscarella; Maude de Schauensee, personal communication</ref>. The pieces include one- and two-ply yarns, exhibiting both S and Z spin, preserved as woven fabric, fringe, tassels, and balls of thread. One example appears to have a kind of pile, with small loops occurring at intervals; its function is, however, unknown. Although the fibers have not been completely analyzed, the textiles from both Bronze and Iron Age levels include a large preponderance of [[Wool|wool]], as well as bast; a second, unspecified vegetal fiber; and goat hair<ref>de Schauensee, personal communication</ref>. Impressions of textiles were also preserved on a silver-and-electrum beaker; presumably, it had been wrapped in fabric for storage<ref>Porada, p. 2971, pl. 1488</ref>. Excavations in the grave of a young girl<ref>grave 3, area Pl</ref> at Haftavan<ref>Haftavān</ref> Tepe, north of Hasanlu, also of the 9th-century b.c., produced the remains of a headdress, which had been made of plain-woven cloth, as well as bits of the thread that had secured decorative bronze disks to it<ref>Burney, pp. 134-35, fig. 8, and pl. IVa</ref>.<br>

Hasanlu<ref>Ḥasanlū</ref>, near Lake Urmia in Azerbaijan, was destroyed in an attack at the end of the 9th-century b.c.<ref>level IVB</ref>, and a relatively large sample of textiles survived the resulting fire<ref>Dyson and Muscarella; Maude de Schauensee, personal communication</ref>. The pieces include one- and two-ply yarns, exhibiting both S and Z spin, preserved as woven fabric, fringe, tassels, and balls of thread. One example appears to have a kind of pile, with small loops occurring at intervals; its function is, however, unknown. Although the fibers have not been completely analyzed, the textiles from both Bronze and Iron Age levels include a large preponderance of [[Wool|wool]], as well as bast; a second, unspecified vegetal fiber; and goat hair<ref>de Schauensee, personal communication</ref>. Impressions of textiles were also preserved on a silver-and-electrum beaker; presumably, it had been wrapped in fabric for storage<ref>Porada, p. 2971, pl. 1488</ref>. Excavations in the grave of a young girl<ref>grave 3, area Pl</ref> at Haftavan<ref>Haftavān</ref> Tepe, north of Hasanlu, also of the 9th-century b.c., produced the remains of a headdress, which had been made of plain-woven cloth, as well as bits of the thread that had secured decorative bronze disks to it<ref>Burney, pp. 134-35, fig. 8, and pl. IVa</ref>.<br>

Another piece of evidence that pile carpets may have been produced in the ancient Near East is to be found on stone slabs from the entrances of residences of the Neo-Assyrian kings, beginning with Tiglath-pileser III<ref>745-27 b.c.</ref>, which are decorated with [[Geometric|geometric]] designs that may represent such carpets<ref>Albenda</ref>. Although Xenophon mentions that the Persian kings made use of “Median carpets” of a yielding softness, no example is preserved from Achaemenid Persia itself<ref>Cyropaedia 5.5.7, 8.8.15-16; cf. Wulff, p. 212</ref>. The earliest well-preserved pile carpet that has been excavated was found in kurgan 5 at the site of [[Pazyryk Carpet|Pazyryk]] in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia; it has often erroneously been identified as “Persian,” even by the excavator<ref>Rudenko, 1970, p. 304</ref>. As kurgan 5 dates from the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century b.c., however, the carpet probably does not belong to the Achaemenid period, though it may well reflect the influence of Achaemenid carpet design. The carpet, which is preserved to nearly full size, originally measured 1.83 by 2 m. The field is divided into 24 framed squares, each containing a stylized floral element that may ultimately have been derived from the quatrefoils of Assyrian prototypes<ref>Albenda, p. 3</ref>. The border consists of five stripes separated by narrow guards of alternating black, tan, and red squares outlined in black, flanked by narrow tan bands edged in black<ref>Rudenko, 1968, pp. 40ff.; idem, 1970, pp. 298ff.</ref>. The outer and inner stripes contain schematic lion-griffins with heads turned back; the heads in the outer stripe face to the left, those of the inner stripe to the right. In the second stripe from the outside is a row of horses with crenellated manes, some ridden and some accompanied by walking male figures wearing caps; the ground is rust-colored. The walking figures resemble the tribute bearers on reliefs at Persepolis<ref>e.g., Ghirshman, 1964, p. 184, pl. 231, p. 176 pl. 222</ref>, and it is this motif that originally suggested a Persian origin for the carpet. Near one corner of this stripe, there are two circles with rosettes in the centers, which have led one scholar to infer that the carpet may have been a game board<ref>Jettmar, p. 121</ref>. The fact that the horsemen are both mounted and on foot, in contrast to the figures on the Persepolis friezes, suggests that this border pattern was a rather distant adaptation of the Achaemenid original.<ref>This observation was made by Judith Lerner.</ref> The central border stripe contains stylized floral elements similar to those in the squares of the field, in rust, white, and black on a tan ground. The remaining stripe contains a frieze of reddish, spotted animals with lowered heads on a buff ground; they were identified by the excavator as fallow deer<ref>Cervus dama; Rudenko, 1968, p. 42</ref>. The haunches are patterned with the Achaemenid “dot and comma” motif<ref>cf. Ghirshman, 1964, p. 239, pl. 286</ref>, and decorative polychrome bands run along the backs and necks, but the relatively naturalistic body contours and pose with lowered head suggest that the carpet was made in Central Asia or Siberia, where this animal and the naturalistic representation of animals, in general, were indigenous<ref>Rubinson; Farkas, pp. 24-25</ref>. The pile consists of [[Symmetrical Knot|symmetrical knots]], 3,600 to the dm2<ref>Rudenko, 1968, pp. 48-49; idem, 1970, p. 302</ref>. It should be noted that kurgan 2 at Bashadar in the Altai, dating about 100 years earlier than Pazyryk kurgan 5, yielded fragments of a much finer knotted carpet, with 7,000 [[Asymmetrical Knot|asymmetrical knots]] to the dm2<ref>Rudenko, 1968, p. 49; idem, 1970, p. 302</ref>. It is, however, too fragmentary to permit the determination of its design or function.<br>

Another piece of evidence that pile carpets may have been produced in the ancient Near East is to be found on stone slabs from the entrances of residences of the Neo-Assyrian kings, beginning with Tiglath-pileser III<ref>745-27 b.c.</ref>, which are decorated with [[Geometric|geometric]] designs that may represent such carpets<ref>Albenda</ref>. Although Xenophon mentions that the Persian kings made use of “Median carpets” of a yielding softness, no example is preserved from Achaemenid Persia itself<ref>Cyropaedia 5.5.7, 8.8.15-16; cf. Wulff, p. 212</ref>. The earliest well-preserved pile carpet that has been excavated was found in kurgan 5 at the site of [[Pazyryk Carpet|Pazyryk]] in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia; it has often erroneously been identified as “Persian,” even by the excavator<ref>Rudenko, 1970, p. 304</ref>. As kurgan 5 dates from the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 3rd century b.c., however, the carpet probably does not belong to the Achaemenid period, though it may well reflect the influence of Achaemenid carpet design. The carpet, which is preserved to nearly full size, originally measured 1.83 by 2 m. The field is divided into 24 framed squares, each containing a stylized floral element that may ultimately have been derived from the quatrefoils of Assyrian prototypes<ref>Albenda, p. 3</ref>. The border consists of five stripes separated by narrow guards of alternating black, tan, and red squares outlined in black, flanked by narrow tan bands edged in black<ref>Rudenko, 1968, pp. 40ff.; idem, 1970, pp. 298ff.</ref>. The outer and inner stripes contain schematic lion-griffins with heads turned back; the heads in the outer stripe face to the left, those of the inner stripe to the right. In the second stripe from the outside is a row of horses with crenellated manes, some ridden and some accompanied by walking male figures wearing caps; the ground is rust-colored. The walking figures resemble the tribute bearers on reliefs at Persepolis<ref>e.g., Ghirshman, 1964, p. 184, pl. 231, p. 176 pl. 222</ref>, and it is this motif that originally suggested a Persian origin for the carpet. Near one corner of this stripe, there are two circles with rosettes in the centers, which have led one scholar to infer that the carpet may have been a game board<ref>Jettmar, p. 121</ref>. The fact that the horsemen are both mounted and on foot, in contrast to the figures on the Persepolis friezes, suggests that this border pattern was a rather distant adaptation of the Achaemenid original.<ref>This observation was made by Judith Lerner.</ref> The central border stripe contains stylized floral elements similar to those in the squares of the field, in rust, white, and black on a tan ground. The remaining stripe contains a frieze of reddish, spotted animals with lowered heads on a buff ground; they were identified by the excavator as fallow deer<ref>Cervus dama; Rudenko, 1968, p. 42</ref>. The haunches are patterned with the Achaemenid “dot and comma” motif<ref>cf. Ghirshman, 1964, p. 239, pl. 286</ref>, and decorative polychrome bands run along the backs and necks, but the relatively naturalistic body contours and pose with lowered head suggest that the carpet was made in Central Asia or Siberia, where this animal and the naturalistic representation of animals, in general, were indigenous<ref>Rubinson; Farkas, pp. 24-25</ref>. The pile consists of [[Symmetrical Knot|symmetrical knots]], 3,600 to the dm2<ref>Rudenko, 1968, pp. 48-49; idem, 1970, p. 302</ref>. It should be noted that kurgan 2 at Bashadar in the Altai, dating about 100 years earlier than Pazyryk kurgan 5, yielded fragments of a much finer knotted carpet, with 7,000 [[Asymmetrical Knot|asymmetrical knots]] to the dm2<ref>Rudenko, 1968, p. 49; idem, 1970, p. 302</ref>. It is, however, too fragmentary to permit the determination of its design or function.<br>