Changes

==iv. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Designs, Motifs, and Patterns==

==iv. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Designs, Motifs, and Patterns==

In this discussion “design” refers to the overall composition of decorative elements on a carpet; the simplest elements in designs are single motifs, which are most frequently combined in more complex units; these units, in turn, may be arranged in various combinations and sequences to form patterns. The terminology for carpet designs, like that for technique<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures|iii. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures]]"]</ref>, is quite controversial, and several sets of nomenclature are currently in use. In academic studies, rugs are traditionally classified on the basis of motifs and patterns, with names usually derived from the broader repertory of Islamic art, for example, “arabesque”. On the other hand, in trade publications carpets are commonly identified according to a place or period of manufacture, and a variety of terms, generally colloquial, are used to label designs. In the absence of a standard vocabulary, the terminology adopted here is that most widely used in scholarly publications<ref>for an extensive list of colloquial terms, see Varzī, pp. 289-99</ref>.<br>

In this discussion “design” refers to the overall composition of decorative elements on a carpet; the simplest elements in designs are single motifs, which are most frequently combined in more complex units; these units, in turn, may be arranged in various combinations and sequences to form patterns. The terminology for carpet designs, like that for technique<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures|iii. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures]]"]</ref>, is quite controversial, and several sets of nomenclature are currently in use. In academic studies, rugs are traditionally classified on the basis of motifs and patterns, with names usually derived from the broader repertory of Islamic art, for example, “arabesque”. On the other hand, in trade publications carpets are commonly identified according to a place or period of manufacture, and a variety of terms, generally colloquial, are used to label designs. In the absence of a standard vocabulary, the terminology adopted here is that most widely used in scholarly publications<ref>for an extensive list of colloquial terms, see Varzī, pp. 289-99</ref>.<br>

Designs. The most common design format in Persian carpets is a central field<ref>matn; Figure 68a</ref> enclosed by a border<ref>ḥāšīa; Figure 68b-e</ref> of patterned stripes alternating with narrow bands of solid colors. The borders of Persian carpets generally have three or more patterned bands; the widest is called the “main stripe” and those flanking it “minor” stripes. The narrow bands of solid color that usually separate the main and minor stripes are known as “guards”. Carpet formats may be categorized further as either directional or nondirectional. The former include pictorial, [[Mihrab|prayer]]-niche<ref>meḥrāb</ref>, and naturalistic vegetal designs intended to be viewed from a single vantage point. Nondirectional designs, on the other hand, are coherent when viewed from any angle; examples include radial designs, as well as abstract repeat patterns associated with [[Tribal|tribal]] weaving<ref>see Āzādī, 1978, no. 40; Edwards, pls. 156-57; Gans-Ruedin, pp. 474, 477, 481</ref>.<br>

Designs. The most common design format in Persian carpets is a central field<ref>matn; Figure 68a</ref> enclosed by a border<ref>ḥāšīa; Figure 68b-e</ref> of patterned stripes alternating with narrow bands of solid colors. The borders of Persian carpets generally have three or more patterned bands; the widest is called the “main stripe” and those flanking it “minor” stripes. The narrow bands of solid color that usually separate the main and minor stripes are known as “guards”. Carpet formats may be categorized further as either directional or nondirectional. The former include pictorial, [[Mihrab|prayer]]-niche<ref>meḥrāb</ref>, and naturalistic vegetal designs intended to be viewed from a single vantage point. Nondirectional designs, on the other hand, are coherent when viewed from any angle; examples include radial designs, as well as abstract repeat patterns associated with [[Tribal|tribal]] weaving<ref>see Āzādī, 1978, no. 40; Edwards, pls. 156-57; Gans-Ruedin, pp. 474, 477, 481</ref>.<br>

Some Persian carpet designs may be either directional or nondirectional, depending upon the nature and arrangement of their specific components. The following are particularly common types:<br>

Some Persian carpet designs may be either directional or nondirectional, depending upon the nature and arrangement of their specific components. The following are particularly common types:<br>

1. Centralized designs are balanced longitudinally and transversely around a central element, usually a [[Medallion|medallion]]. In medallion-and-corner<ref>lačak toranj</ref> designs there are a medallion in the center of the field and a quarter-medallion in each corner<ref>e.g., Āzādī, 1978, no. 39; Gans-Ruedin, p. 452</ref>. Arguably the best-known examples of Persian carpets with centralized designs are the so-called [[Ardabil Carpet|Ardabīl carpet]]s.<br>

1. Centralized designs are balanced longitudinally and transversely around a central element, usually a [[Medallion|medallion]]. In medallion-and-corner<ref>lačak toranj</ref> designs there are a medallion in the center of the field and a quarter-medallion in each corner<ref>e.g., Āzādī, 1978, no. 39; Gans-Ruedin, p. 452</ref>. Arguably the best-known examples of Persian carpets with centralized designs are the so-called [[Ardabil Carpet|Ardabīl carpet]]s.<br>

2. In lattice designs linear motifs intersect to form an overall grid or lattice. Two, three, or more lattice systems may be superimposed so that their components cross at regular intervals. Although this type of design is most familiar from certain carpets in the so-called “vase technique” attributed to the Safavid period<ref>Beattie, 1976, pp. 40-58, nos. 33-37; [WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Safavid Period|ix. Safavid period]]"]</ref>, a variety of lattice designs are still woven today<ref>e.g., Āzādī, 1978, no. 37; Edwards, pl. 218</ref>.<br>

2. In lattice designs linear motifs intersect to form an overall grid or lattice. Two, three, or more lattice systems may be superimposed so that their components cross at regular intervals. Although this type of design is most familiar from certain carpets in the so-called “vase technique” attributed to the Safavid period<ref>Beattie, 1976, pp. 40-58, nos. 33-37; [WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Safavid Period|ix. Safavid period]]"]</ref>, a variety of lattice designs are still woven today<ref>e.g., Āzādī, 1978, no. 37; Edwards, pl. 218</ref>.<br>

7. The sickle leaf is a long, curved leaf with a serrated concave edge<ref>Survey of Persian Art, fig. 784a-d</ref>.<br>

7. The sickle leaf is a long, curved leaf with a serrated concave edge<ref>Survey of Persian Art, fig. 784a-d</ref>.<br>

8. The cloud band is an extended ribbon-like motif ultimately derived from Chinese art<ref>Survey of Persian Art, figs. 789a-o, 791a-n</ref>.<br>

8. The cloud band is an extended ribbon-like motif ultimately derived from Chinese art<ref>Survey of Persian Art, figs. 789a-o, 791a-n</ref>.<br>

==Patterns==

==Patterns==

Among the most frequent patterns on Persian carpets are the following.<br>

Among the most frequent patterns on Persian carpets are the following.<br>

1 . [[Herati|Herātī]]<ref>lit. “from Herāt”; Figure 73</ref> is named for the city in which it was formerly thought to have been developed<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Safavid Period|ix. Safavid period]]"]</ref>. The defining unit consists of a rosette framed in a rhombus with palmettes at the corners. Four sickle leaves are arranged around the whole. In Persian, the pattern is also known as māhī “fish” from the resemblance of the sickle leaves to small fish. The pattern is woven throughout Persia, with local variations<ref>Edwards, pls. 17-19</ref>.<br>

1 . [[Herati|Herātī]]<ref>lit. “from Herāt”; Figure 73</ref> is named for the city in which it was formerly thought to have been developed<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Safavid Period|ix. Safavid period]]"]</ref>. The defining unit consists of a rosette framed in a rhombus with palmettes at the corners. Four sickle leaves are arranged around the whole. In Persian, the pattern is also known as māhī “fish” from the resemblance of the sickle leaves to small fish. The pattern is woven throughout Persia, with local variations<ref>Edwards, pls. 17-19</ref>.<br>

Alternatively, the weaver may use a knotted sampler<ref>vā-gīra</ref> in which a section or sections of the field and border designs have been woven according to a cartoon. Although initial preparation of the vā-gīra requires more time and labor than does that of a paper pattern, it provides a more effective representation of a particular choice of colors and design before weaving actually begins, so that costly and time-consuming errors can be avoided. It is also more durable than a paper cartoon. The vā-gīra is noted in descriptions of late 13th/19th- and early 14th/20th-century carpet production, and it has been suggested that it was introduced by Western exporters at that time<ref>Edwards, p. 125</ref>. It is quite possible, however, that such carpet samplers were in use earlier.<br>

Alternatively, the weaver may use a knotted sampler<ref>vā-gīra</ref> in which a section or sections of the field and border designs have been woven according to a cartoon. Although initial preparation of the vā-gīra requires more time and labor than does that of a paper pattern, it provides a more effective representation of a particular choice of colors and design before weaving actually begins, so that costly and time-consuming errors can be avoided. It is also more durable than a paper cartoon. The vā-gīra is noted in descriptions of late 13th/19th- and early 14th/20th-century carpet production, and it has been suggested that it was introduced by Western exporters at that time<ref>Edwards, p. 125</ref>. It is quite possible, however, that such carpet samplers were in use earlier.<br>

Today the patterns woven in urban carpet workshops in Persia are usually copied directly from cartoons. The cartoon also plays a vital role in cottage carpet weaving, as it allows an entrepreneur to place orders for a specific pattern with any number of individual loom owners. As a single loom owner may be simultaneously under contract to more than one manufacturing firm, however, it is virtually impossible to copyright designs at the cottage level, and many incidents of design piracy have been recorded in correspondence from foreign manufacturing firms in Iran to their respective consuls<ref>e.g., U.K. Foreign Office 248.1072, 11/21/13</ref>.<br>

Today the patterns woven in urban carpet workshops in Persia are usually copied directly from cartoons. The cartoon also plays a vital role in cottage carpet weaving, as it allows an entrepreneur to place orders for a specific pattern with any number of individual loom owners. As a single loom owner may be simultaneously under contract to more than one manufacturing firm, however, it is virtually impossible to copyright designs at the cottage level, and many incidents of design piracy have been recorded in correspondence from foreign manufacturing firms in Iran to their respective consuls<ref>e.g., U.K. Foreign Office 248.1072, 11/21/13</ref>.<br>

Designers<ref>naqqāš</ref>. The importance of the designer in the hierarchy of artisans involved in carpet production is reflected in the occasional inclusion of designers’ names in custom-woven carpets<ref>Ittig, 1985, no. 5</ref>; generally, carpet inscriptions mention only patrons and/or loom owners<ref>ostād</ref>, rather than actual craftsmen. Design training has traditionally been conducted according to the apprenticeship system<ref>Parhām, n.p.; Edwards, p. 207</ref>; it was not unusual for the skill to be passed down from father to son<ref>Parhām, n.p.; Edwards, p. 207</ref>. A designer might work either for a specific firm or on commission, supplying designs to more than one manufacturer<ref>Edwards, pp. 308, 337</ref>. During the late 13th/19th and early 14th/20th centuries, a “boom” period for Persian carpets, competition for designers was keen; for example, in Kermān one Āqā Moḥammad, a designer under contract to the Eastern Rug and Trading Company, was lured by higher wages into the employ of the German firm Persische Teppichgesellschaft AG<ref>PETAG; U.K Foreign Office 248.1072, 9/8/13</ref>.<br>

Designers<ref>naqqāš</ref>. The importance of the designer in the hierarchy of artisans involved in carpet production is reflected in the occasional inclusion of designers’ names in custom-woven carpets<ref>Ittig, 1985, no. 5</ref>; generally, carpet inscriptions mention only patrons and/or loom owners<ref>ostād</ref>, rather than actual craftsmen. Design training has traditionally been conducted according to the apprenticeship system<ref>Parhām, n.p.; Edwards, p. 207</ref>; it was not unusual for the skill to be passed down from father to son<ref>Parhām, n.p.; Edwards, p. 207</ref>. A designer might work either for a specific firm or on commission, supplying designs to more than one manufacturer<ref>Edwards, pp. 308, 337</ref>. During the late 13th/19th and early 14th/20th centuries, a “boom” period for Persian carpets, competition for designers was keen; for example, in Kermān one Āqā Moḥammad, a designer under contract to the Eastern Rug and Trading Company, was lured by higher wages into the employ of the German firm Persische Teppichgesellschaft AG<ref>PETAG; U.K Foreign Office 248.1072, 9/8/13</ref>.<br>

Design and provenience. No extant example of a knotted-pile carpet that can be firmly attributed to Persian manufacture before the 10th/16th century is known<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Pre-Islamic Carpets|vi. Pre-Islamic carpets]]"] and "[[Persian Carpets/Islamic Persia to the Mongols|vii. Islamic Persia to the Mongols]]"]</ref>. Early geographers, historians, and travelers provided only cursory descriptions of carpet designs and manufacture<ref>for an annotated compilation of historical references to trade and production of textiles, including carpets, into the 8th/14th century, see Serjeant</ref>. Perhaps the most famous pre-Safavid carpets are the legendary Bahārestān carpet<ref>[WikiRug: For more information about BAHĀR-E KESRĀ see [https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahar-e-kesra-the-spring-of-kosrow-tabari-fars-e-zamestani-winter-carpet-balami-or-baharestan-spring-gar Iranica, "BAHĀR-E KESRĀ"]]</ref>, or “Spring of Kosrow,” and the [[Pazyryk Carpet|Pazyryk carpet]]<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Pre-Islamic Carpets|vi. Pre-Islamic carpets]]"]</ref>. The former, if in fact it was a woven carpet, was probably of flat-woven, rather than pile, construction<ref>Edwards, p. 2</ref>. Recent archeological evidence suggests that the Pazyryk carpet, on the other hand, may not be of Persian origin but a product of Central Asia or Siberia<ref>Kawami, pp. 16-17 and nn. 64-66</ref>.<br>

Design and provenience. No extant example of a knotted-pile carpet that can be firmly attributed to Persian manufacture before the 10th/16th century is known<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Pre-Islamic Carpets|vi. Pre-Islamic carpets]]"] and "[[Persian Carpets/Islamic Persia to the Mongols|vii. Islamic Persia to the Mongols]]"]</ref>. Early geographers, historians, and travelers provided only cursory descriptions of carpet designs and manufacture<ref>for an annotated compilation of historical references to trade and production of textiles, including carpets, into the 8th/14th century, see Serjeant</ref>. Perhaps the most famous pre-Safavid carpets are the legendary Bahārestān carpet<ref>[WikiRug: For more information about BAHĀR-E KESRĀ see [https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahar-e-kesra-the-spring-of-kosrow-tabari-fars-e-zamestani-winter-carpet-balami-or-baharestan-spring-gar Iranica, "BAHĀR-E KESRĀ"]]</ref>, or “Spring of Kosrow,” and the [[Pazyryk Carpet|Pazyryk carpet]]<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Pre-Islamic Carpets|vi. Pre-Islamic carpets]]"]</ref>. The former, if in fact it was a woven carpet, was probably of flat-woven, rather than pile, construction<ref>Edwards, p. 2</ref>. Recent archeological evidence suggests that the Pazyryk carpet, on the other hand, may not be of Persian origin but a product of Central Asia or Siberia<ref>Kawami, pp. 16-17 and nn. 64-66</ref>.<br>

Although the chronology of Anatolian carpets in the 9th-12th/15th-18th centuries is based largely upon comparison with representations in European painting<ref>Mills, pp. 10-33</ref>, similar methods are less useful in dating carpets attributed to Persian manufacture<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Introductory Survey|i. Introductory Survey]]"]</ref>. Persian carpets, usually of the “Herat” or “Indo-Persian” group, appear in the 11th/17th century, in the paintings of van Dyck, Rubens, and Vermeer, and other European artists, but for earlier periods scholars have traditionally relied for dating on stylistic comparisons with architectural ornament, bookbindings, manuscript illuminations, and depictions of floor coverings and textiles in miniature paintings<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Islamic Persia to the Mongols|vii. Islamic Persia to the Mongols]]"] and "[[Persian Carpets/The Il-khanid and Timurid Periods|viii. Il-khanid and Timurid periods]]"]</ref>.<br>

Although the chronology of Anatolian carpets in the 9th-12th/15th-18th centuries is based largely upon comparison with representations in European painting<ref>Mills, pp. 10-33</ref>, similar methods are less useful in dating carpets attributed to Persian manufacture<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Introductory Survey|i. Introductory Survey]]"]</ref>. Persian carpets, usually of the “Herat” or “Indo-Persian” group, appear in the 11th/17th century, in the paintings of van Dyck, Rubens, and Vermeer, and other European artists, but for earlier periods scholars have traditionally relied for dating on stylistic comparisons with architectural ornament, bookbindings, manuscript illuminations, and depictions of floor coverings and textiles in miniature paintings<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Islamic Persia to the Mongols|vii. Islamic Persia to the Mongols]]"] and "[[Persian Carpets/The Il-khanid and Timurid Periods|viii. Il-khanid and Timurid periods]]"]</ref>.<br>

Among the earliest visual evidence for Persian carpets are the depictions of floor coverings in Timurid miniature paintings, where the predominant field designs are small repeat patterns of squares, hexagons, octagons, circles, and crosses; borders often contain repetitious “pseudo-Kufic” designs<ref>Briggs, 1940; [WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/The Il-khanid and Timurid Periods|viii. Il-khanid and Timurid periods]]"]</ref>. Unfortunately, these paintings give no indication of technique and may represent flatweaves, pile carpets, or even, in some instances, felts. Furthermore, extant Anatolian, Spanish, and Mamluk rugs, as well as carpets depicted in contemporary European paintings, attest that an “octagon” style was in vogue internationally at that time<ref>King, pp. 14-21, pls. 7-12, 14-16, 22-25; Mills, pp. 10-26, pls. 3, 5-7, 11-12</ref>. The floor covering that most closely resembles in design those in Timurid paintings is the zīlū, a sturdy cotton flatweave with a double-cloth structure<ref>Wulff, Crafts, pp. 210-11; Beattie, 1981, p. 171, figs. 2, 4, 6-7; see v, below</ref>. The date on a fragmentary zīlū with a waqf inscription found in the congregational mosque at Maybod, near [[Yazd Rug|Yazd]], has been interpreted as 808/1405<ref>Afšār, pls. 44-45</ref>; if that is correct, this fragment would be of Timurid or [[Turkmen Rug|Turkman]] manufacture, the oldest carpet firmly attributable to Persian looms.<br>

Among the earliest visual evidence for Persian carpets are the depictions of floor coverings in Timurid miniature paintings, where the predominant field designs are small repeat patterns of squares, hexagons, octagons, circles, and crosses; borders often contain repetitious “pseudo-Kufic” designs<ref>Briggs, 1940; [WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/The Il-khanid and Timurid Periods|viii. Il-khanid and Timurid periods]]"]</ref>. Unfortunately, these paintings give no indication of technique and may represent flatweaves, pile carpets, or even, in some instances, felts. Furthermore, extant Anatolian, Spanish, and Mamluk rugs, as well as carpets depicted in contemporary European paintings, attest that an “octagon” style was in vogue internationally at that time<ref>King, pp. 14-21, pls. 7-12, 14-16, 22-25; Mills, pp. 10-26, pls. 3, 5-7, 11-12</ref>. The floor covering that most closely resembles in design those in Timurid paintings is the zīlū, a sturdy cotton flatweave with a double-cloth structure<ref>Wulff, Crafts, pp. 210-11; Beattie, 1981, p. 171, figs. 2, 4, 6-7; see v, below</ref>. The date on a fragmentary zīlū with a waqf inscription found in the congregational mosque at Maybod, near [[Yazd Rug|Yazd]], has been interpreted as 808/1405<ref>Afšār, pls. 44-45</ref>; if that is correct, this fragment would be of Timurid or [[Turkmen Rug|Turkman]] manufacture, the oldest carpet firmly attributable to Persian looms.<br>

At present there are only five published pile carpets that can be assigned a Safavid provenience on the basis of inwoven inscriptions and dates<ref>Ittig, 1984, no. 26</ref>; the two Ardabīl carpets of 942/1535-36, the Milan hunting carpet of 929/1522-23 or 949/1542-43, a fragment with a multiple medallion field design in Sarajevo dated 1066/1655-56<ref>Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1238</ref>, and a shaped silk carpet with a directional design of cypresses and flowering plants in Qom dated 1082/1662<ref>Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1258B</ref>. In both their field designs and their predominantly curvilinear motifs, these pieces differ significantly from the repeat patterns of small [[Geometric|geometric]] motifs that scholars have traditionally associated with Timurid carpets, though it is now recognized that “Safavid” features also occurred on floor coverings in Timurid paintings<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures|iii. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures]]"]</ref>. Interestingly, most of the floor coverings depicted in miniature paintings ascribed to the Safavid period have centralized designs and curvilinear motifs, but none of those illustrated exactly correspond to any extant carpets considered to be of Safavid manufacture.<br>

At present there are only five published pile carpets that can be assigned a Safavid provenience on the basis of inwoven inscriptions and dates<ref>Ittig, 1984, no. 26</ref>; the two Ardabīl carpets of 942/1535-36, the Milan hunting carpet of 929/1522-23 or 949/1542-43, a fragment with a multiple medallion field design in Sarajevo dated 1066/1655-56<ref>Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1238</ref>, and a shaped silk carpet with a directional design of cypresses and flowering plants in Qom dated 1082/1662<ref>Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1258B</ref>. In both their field designs and their predominantly curvilinear motifs, these pieces differ significantly from the repeat patterns of small [[Geometric|geometric]] motifs that scholars have traditionally associated with Timurid carpets, though it is now recognized that “Safavid” features also occurred on floor coverings in Timurid paintings<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures|iii. Knotted-Pile Carpets: Techniques and Structures]]"]</ref>. Interestingly, most of the floor coverings depicted in miniature paintings ascribed to the Safavid period have centralized designs and curvilinear motifs, but none of those illustrated exactly correspond to any extant carpets considered to be of Safavid manufacture.<br>

Carpets attributed to this period are characteristically filled with a variety of stylized floral and foliate motifs, many classifiable as chinoiserie, including lotus and leaf palmettes, split-leaf arabesques, scrolling vines, and blossoms, as well as real and fantastic animals, cloud bands, and cloud knots. Human and animal figures and tableaux from Persian literature also occur occasionally. Despite the wide range of decorative devices employed, these carpets are normally strongly symmetrical on the longitudinal axis and often transversely as well. The terms used to distinguish groups of Safavid carpets, for example, Polonaise, Sanguszko, and Herat, were devised during the early days of carpet studies. Today, a century later, they remain in use as labels of convenience, for no satisfactory classification based on place of manufacture has yet been developed<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Safavid Period|ix. Safavid period]]"]</ref>. It is generally thought that the designs for Safavid carpets were produced by court craftsmen, who were also responsible for designs for the arts of the book and for painted architectural decoration. Yet such assumptions must be treated with caution, especially as the development of miniature painting itself is not yet entirely clear; and miniatures formerly thought to have been produced under royal patronage in court workshops have been reattributed to other settings<ref>e.g., Simpson, p. 97</ref>. Furthermore, there are no extant carpets known to have been ordered specifically for the Safavid court, though there is contemporary textual evidence that carpets of various other kinds—nomadic, village, and urban, including both commercial weaving and weaving to order—were manufactured in various regions, as they are today<ref>Keyvānī, p. 237; Chardin, VII, pp. 329-34; Du Mans, p. 187; Mańkowski, p. 2433; Thevenot, p. 77</ref>. Finally, the assertion that “the golden age of the<ref>classical</ref> class doubtlessly falls within the first half of the sixteenth century”<ref>Bode and Kuhnel, p. 87</ref> is unproven: at present, only three dated pieces support this statement. The traditional chronology and classifications of Safavid carpets, therefore, require careful reexamination. More recent studies have stressed structural as well as design features in attributing provenience<ref>e.g., Beattie, 1976, passim</ref>; closer attention to primary sources may also provide a clearer understanding of the historical context of carpet manufacture.<br>

Carpets attributed to this period are characteristically filled with a variety of stylized floral and foliate motifs, many classifiable as chinoiserie, including lotus and leaf palmettes, split-leaf arabesques, scrolling vines, and blossoms, as well as real and fantastic animals, cloud bands, and cloud knots. Human and animal figures and tableaux from Persian literature also occur occasionally. Despite the wide range of decorative devices employed, these carpets are normally strongly symmetrical on the longitudinal axis and often transversely as well. The terms used to distinguish groups of Safavid carpets, for example, Polonaise, Sanguszko, and Herat, were devised during the early days of carpet studies. Today, a century later, they remain in use as labels of convenience, for no satisfactory classification based on place of manufacture has yet been developed<ref>[WikiRug: For more information see "[[Persian Carpets/Safavid Period|ix. Safavid period]]"]</ref>. It is generally thought that the designs for Safavid carpets were produced by court craftsmen, who were also responsible for designs for the arts of the book and for painted architectural decoration. Yet such assumptions must be treated with caution, especially as the development of miniature painting itself is not yet entirely clear; and miniatures formerly thought to have been produced under royal patronage in court workshops have been reattributed to other settings<ref>e.g., Simpson, p. 97</ref>. Furthermore, there are no extant carpets known to have been ordered specifically for the Safavid court, though there is contemporary textual evidence that carpets of various other kinds—nomadic, village, and urban, including both commercial weaving and weaving to order—were manufactured in various regions, as they are today<ref>Keyvānī, p. 237; Chardin, VII, pp. 329-34; Du Mans, p. 187; Mańkowski, p. 2433; Thevenot, p. 77</ref>. Finally, the assertion that “the golden age of the<ref>classical</ref> class doubtlessly falls within the first half of the sixteenth century”<ref>Bode and Kuhnel, p. 87</ref> is unproven: at present, only three dated pieces support this statement. The traditional chronology and classifications of Safavid carpets, therefore, require careful reexamination. More recent studies have stressed structural as well as design features in attributing provenience<ref>e.g., Beattie, 1976, passim</ref>; closer attention to primary sources may also provide a clearer understanding of the historical context of carpet manufacture.<br>