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Carpets, (qālī; Ar. and Pers. farš), heavy textiles are used as coverings for floors, walls, and other large surfaces, as well as for various kinds of furnishing.

Carpets, (qālī; Ar. and Pers. farš), heavy textiles are used as coverings for floors, walls, and other large surfaces, as well as for various kinds of furnishing.

Northwest Persian medallion carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1112-14, 1116-25, 1127-28</ref>. This group consists of about thirty carpets, most with wool pile<ref>though at least two include some cotton</ref>, cotton warps, and either cotton or wool wefts. The designs feature multipointed<ref>often sixteen-pointed</ref> central medallions. The most celebrated example is a medallion carpet in the Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan<ref>no. DT 1</ref>, with horsemen hunting animals across the field<ref>Plate CVIII</ref>. In the center of the medallion is an inscription bearing a date<ref>read as either 929/1522-23 or 949/1542-43</ref>. Another field design, more characteristic of the group, consists of a repeat pattern of scrolling vines and forked leaves. These carpets appear to have been woven from about the turn of the 10th/16th century, or perhaps earlier, into the 11th/17th century, though it is uncertain whether lower quality of design and execution indicates a decline over time or simply contemporary production at an inferior level. The group is usually associated with northwestern Persia because of perceived similarities to other medallion carpets, including the “Ardabīl carpets,” traditionally assigned to northwestern Persia<ref>see “Silk-foundation carpets,” below</ref>. Variations in coloring suggest that the carpets were made at more than one weaving center.<br>

Northwest Persian medallion carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1112-14, 1116-25, 1127-28</ref>. This group consists of about thirty carpets, most with wool pile<ref>though at least two include some cotton</ref>, cotton warps, and either cotton or wool wefts. The designs feature multipointed<ref>often sixteen-pointed</ref> central medallions. The most celebrated example is a medallion carpet in the Museo Poldi Pezzoli, Milan<ref>no. DT 1</ref>, with horsemen hunting animals across the field<ref>Plate CVIII</ref>. In the center of the medallion is an inscription bearing a date<ref>read as either 929/1522-23 or 949/1542-43</ref>. Another field design, more characteristic of the group, consists of a repeat pattern of scrolling vines and forked leaves. These carpets appear to have been woven from about the turn of the 10th/16th century, or perhaps earlier, into the 11th/17th century, though it is uncertain whether lower quality of design and execution indicates a decline over time or simply contemporary production at an inferior level. The group is usually associated with northwestern Persia because of perceived similarities to other medallion carpets, including the “Ardabīl carpets,” traditionally assigned to northwestern Persia<ref>see “Silk-foundation carpets,” below</ref>. Variations in coloring suggest that the carpets were made at more than one weaving center.<br>

Silk-foundation carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1130-36, 1144-47, 1152-54, 1156-62, 1165-70, 1177</ref>. A significant number of extremely fine carpets woven on silk foundations have so far eluded categorization except by design<ref>defined by single central medallions, multiple medallions, cartouches, prayer niches, and so on</ref>. Characteristics include extremely fine weave<ref>in some examples there are about 500 knots to the square inch</ref>, luxurious materials<ref>beside the silk foundations silver and gold brocading also occurs occasionally</ref>, elegant drawing, and rich colors. Some, like the multiple-medallion “Chelsea carpet”<ref>Victoria and Albert Museum, London, no. 589-1890, Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1130-32</ref> and a pair of fine cartouche rugs<ref>The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, no. 10.61.3, Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1133; Musée Historique des Tissus, Lyons, no. 25.423</ref> include elaborate figural motifs. Others, like the renowned “Ardabīl carpets”<ref>Victoria and Albert Museum, no. 272-1983; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, no. 53.50.2</ref>, dated by inscriptions to 946/1539-40, are exclusively nonfigural<ref>see Plate CIX</ref>. This famous pair of medallion carpets was long thought to have been made for the ancestral shrine of the Safavids at Ardabīl, but a study of inventories and the sizes of the rooms in the shrine, as well as suggestions that the carpets actually came from the Shrine of Imam Reżā at Mašhad<ref>Weaver, p. 48</ref>, has cast doubt on this association. The so-called “Salting group,” the nucleus of which is the “Salting rug,” named for its donor<ref>Victoria and Albert Museum, no. T. 402-1910, Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1162</ref>, originally thought to be from 9th/16th-century Persia, has been reattributed to 13th/19th-century Turkey. Doubts about many similar pieces with medallion and prayer-niche designs and either secular or religious inscriptions have also been raised<ref>Erdmann, 1970, pp. 76-80</ref>. Nevertheless, the earlier attribution should not be dismissed for every rug in the group without careful examination; some may indeed be early pieces. The Salting rugs<ref>at least the possibly authentic ones</ref> have silk foundations, and most are brocaded. Carpets of the silk-foundation class appear to span the full 10th/16th century and may have been manufactured in several places; Tabrīz, Kāšān, Qazvīn, and Herat have all been suggested as possibilities.<br>

Silk-foundation carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1130-36, 1144-47, 1152-54, 1156-62, 1165-70, 1177</ref>. A significant number of extremely fine carpets woven on silk foundations have so far eluded categorization except by design<ref>defined by single central medallions, multiple medallions, cartouches, prayer niches, and so on</ref>. Characteristics include extremely fine weave<ref>in some examples there are about 500 knots to the square inch</ref>, luxurious materials<ref>beside the silk foundations silver and gold brocading also occurs occasionally</ref>, elegant drawing, and rich colors. Some, like the multiple-medallion “Chelsea carpet”<ref>Victoria and Albert Museum, London, no. 589-1890, Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1130-32</ref> and a pair of fine cartouche rugs<ref>The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, no. 10.61.3, Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1133; Musée Historique des Tissus, Lyons, no. 25.423</ref> include elaborate figural motifs. Others, like the renowned “Ardabīl carpets”<ref>Victoria and Albert Museum, no. 272-1983; Los Angeles County Museum of Art, no. 53.50.2</ref>, dated by inscriptions to 946/1539-40, are exclusively nonfigural<ref>see Plate CIX</ref>. This famous pair of medallion carpets was long thought to have been made for the ancestral shrine of the Safavids at Ardabīl, but a study of inventories and the sizes of the rooms in the shrine, as well as suggestions that the carpets actually came from the Shrine of Imam Reżā at Mašhad<ref>Weaver, p. 48</ref>, has cast doubt on this association. The so-called “Salting group,” the nucleus of which is the “Salting rug,” named for its donor<ref>Victoria and Albert Museum, no. T. 402-1910, Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1162</ref>, originally thought to be from 9th/16th-century Persia, has been reattributed to 13th/19th-century Turkey. Doubts about many similar pieces with medallion and prayer-niche designs and either secular or religious inscriptions have also been raised<ref>Erdmann, 1970, pp. 76-80</ref>. Nevertheless, the earlier attribution should not be dismissed for every rug in the group without careful examination; some may indeed be early pieces. The Salting rugs<ref>at least the possibly authentic ones</ref> have silk foundations, and most are brocaded. Carpets of the silk-foundation class appear to span the full 10th/16th century and may have been manufactured in several places; Tabrīz, Kāšān, Qazvīn, and Herat have all been suggested as possibilities.<br>

Kāšān silk carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1191-1202</ref>. A group of twenty rugs with silk warps, wefts, and pile is characterized by designs based on a variety of lobed and ogival medallions and on figural elements found also in the arts of the book. Of the four large pieces the most famous is a hunting carpet in Vienna<ref>Österreichisches Museum für Angewandte Kunst, no. T8336, Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1191-92</ref>, with a central medallion around which are arranged horsemen hunting animals against a background of flowering plants. The figure style is comparable to that in royal illustrated manuscripts of the court of Shah Ṭahmāsb<ref>r. 930-84/1524-76</ref>. This carpet is embellished with gold and silver brocade. Of the sixteen smaller pieces twelve have various medallion designs, and four have animals, some in combat, arranged pictorially<ref>i.e., oriented toward one end of the rug, rather than symmetrically disposed; see iv, above</ref>. The dating of this group ranges from about 946/1540, when artistic production under the patronage of Shah Ṭahmāsb was at its peak, to perhaps the end of the century. The traditional attribution of this group to Kāšān is based primarily on the fame of that city’s silk industry and on the 11th/17th-century production at Kāšān of carpets of similar luxury materials<ref>see “Tapestry-woven carpets” and “Polonaise carpets,” below</ref>.<br>

Kāšān silk carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1191-1202</ref>. A group of twenty rugs with silk warps, wefts, and pile is characterized by designs based on a variety of lobed and ogival medallions and on figural elements found also in the arts of the book. Of the four large pieces the most famous is a hunting carpet in Vienna<ref>Österreichisches Museum für Angewandte Kunst, no. T8336, Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1191-92</ref>, with a central medallion around which are arranged horsemen hunting animals against a background of flowering plants. The figure style is comparable to that in royal illustrated manuscripts of the court of Shah Ṭahmāsb<ref>r. 930-84/1524-76</ref>. This carpet is embellished with gold and silver brocade. Of the sixteen smaller pieces twelve have various medallion designs, and four have animals, some in combat, arranged pictorially<ref>i.e., oriented toward one end of the rug, rather than symmetrically disposed; see iv, above</ref>. The dating of this group ranges from about 946/1540, when artistic production under the patronage of Shah Ṭahmāsb was at its peak, to perhaps the end of the century. The traditional attribution of this group to Kāšān is based primarily on the fame of that city’s silk industry and on the 11th/17th-century production at Kāšān of carpets of similar luxury materials<ref>see “tapestry-woven carpets” and “Polonaise carpets,” below</ref>.<br>

Herat carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1140-41, 1143, 1148-51, 1174-76, 1178-79, 1182-84, 1186-87</ref>. Several dozen carpets and fragments belong to this group. The most prevalent field design consists of symmetrically disposed scrolling vines with palmettes and leaves. Animals and birds are sometimes added to the floral pattern, and palmettes and blossoms may take on highly complex and fantastic forms. Elaborate striped cloud bands occur. Usually the field is red, and the main border, which also contains floral motifs, is dark green. The best-known carpet in this group is the “Emperor’s carpet,” actually a pair of carpets<ref>Österreichisches Museum für Angewandte Kunst, no. T8334; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, no. 43.121.1</ref>, supposedly a gift from Peter the Great of Russia to Leopold I, emperor of Austria, in 1698<ref>Plate CX</ref>. The finest examples have silk foundations; others, though closely related in style, design, and color, have mixed foundations of wool, silk, and cotton, sometimes plied together, a peculiarity rarely encountered elsewhere. Some examples are brocaded. A few fragments characterized by exquisite drawing and with pile of very fine wool, probably goat hair, seem to belong to this group. The Herat group is thus one in which a real hierarchy of weaving quality can be observed: Similar designs were woven in several easily distinguishable grades. The association with Herat is based on affinities between the rug designs and late 9th/15th-century painting and illumination in Herat, the Timurid capital. The Herat group probably dates from the second half of the 10th/16th and early 11th/17th centuries and was the forerunner of the so-called Indo-Persian group of the 10th/17th century<ref>see below</ref>.<br>

Herat carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1140-41, 1143, 1148-51, 1174-76, 1178-79, 1182-84, 1186-87</ref>. Several dozen carpets and fragments belong to this group. The most prevalent field design consists of symmetrically disposed scrolling vines with palmettes and leaves. Animals and birds are sometimes added to the floral pattern, and palmettes and blossoms may take on highly complex and fantastic forms. Elaborate striped cloud bands occur. Usually the field is red, and the main border, which also contains floral motifs, is dark green. The best-known carpet in this group is the “Emperor’s carpet,” actually a pair of carpets<ref>Österreichisches Museum für Angewandte Kunst, no. T8334; The Metropolitan Museum of Art, no. 43.121.1</ref>, supposedly a gift from Peter the Great of Russia to Leopold I, emperor of Austria, in 1698<ref>Plate CX</ref>. The finest examples have silk foundations; others, though closely related in style, design, and color, have mixed foundations of wool, silk, and cotton, sometimes plied together, a peculiarity rarely encountered elsewhere. Some examples are brocaded. A few fragments characterized by exquisite drawing and with pile of very fine wool, probably goat hair, seem to belong to this group. The Herat group is thus one in which a real hierarchy of weaving quality can be observed: Similar designs were woven in several easily distinguishable grades. The association with Herat is based on affinities between the rug designs and late 9th/15th-century painting and illumination in Herat, the Timurid capital. The Herat group probably dates from the second half of the 10th/16th and early 11th/17th centuries and was the forerunner of the so-called Indo-Persian group of the 10th/17th century<ref>see below</ref>.<br>

Sanguszko carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1205-10, 1212A, 1213-14</ref>. The Sanguszko carpets, of which more than a dozen examples are known, are distinguished by figural decoration closely tied to manuscript illustration, a bright appearance owing to abundant use of white in the pile, and certain technical peculiarities. The group owes its name to the former owner of one magnificent example of the group<ref>currently on loan to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, no. L1985.3; Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1206</ref>. Medallion designs with symmetrically arranged floral patterns predominate, but directional designs with figural motifs are also found. Animal-combat motifs are plentiful, and animal heads often inhabit palmettes and border designs. Clusters of human figures embellish discrete compartments in the field or border; some of these figures can be directly linked to manuscript illustrations, for example, scenes from Laylī o Majnūn and images of fighting camels, a popular subject first seen in an early 10th/16th-century painting by Behzād. Technically the Sanguszko pieces resemble the so-called vase carpets<ref>see below</ref> with cotton warps and wefts of wool and silk, but they differ in other ways. The localization of this group is highly conjectural; Kāšān, Yazd, Kermān, and Qazvīn have all been suggested, but certain differences within the group suggest that these carpets were produced at more than one weaving center. A date late in the 10th/16th, or perhaps even early in the 11th/17th, century seems plausible on the basis of the figure style and the existence of Indian copies that probably date from the early 11th/17th century.<br>

Sanguszko carpets<ref>cf. Survey of Persian Art, pls. 1205-10, 1212A, 1213-14</ref>. The Sanguszko carpets, of which more than a dozen examples are known, are distinguished by figural decoration closely tied to manuscript illustration, a bright appearance owing to abundant use of white in the pile, and certain technical peculiarities. The group owes its name to the former owner of one magnificent example of the group<ref>currently on loan to The Metropolitan Museum of Art, no. L1985.3; Survey of Persian Art, pl. 1206</ref>. Medallion designs with symmetrically arranged floral patterns predominate, but directional designs with figural motifs are also found. Animal-combat motifs are plentiful, and animal heads often inhabit palmettes and border designs. Clusters of human figures embellish discrete compartments in the field or border; some of these figures can be directly linked to manuscript illustrations, for example, scenes from Laylī o Majnūn and images of fighting camels, a popular subject first seen in an early 10th/16th-century painting by Behzād. Technically the Sanguszko pieces resemble the so-called vase carpets<ref>see below</ref> with cotton warps and wefts of wool and silk, but they differ in other ways. The localization of this group is highly conjectural; Kāšān, Yazd, Kermān, and Qazvīn have all been suggested, but certain differences within the group suggest that these carpets were produced at more than one weaving center. A date late in the 10th/16th, or perhaps even early in the 11th/17th, century seems plausible on the basis of the figure style and the existence of Indian copies that probably date from the early 11th/17th century.<br>